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I. PRINCIPLES OF ARGUMENT 1. Argument: An Introduction What Do We Mean by Argument? Argument Is Not a Fight or a Quarrel Argument Is Not Pro-Con Debate Arguments Can Be Explicit or Implicit An Explicit Argument Opposing Legalization of Marijuana For Writing and Discussion: Implicit and Explicit Arguments The Defining Features of Argument Argument Requires Justification of Its Claims Argument Is Both a Process and a Product Argument Combines Truth-Seeking and Persuasion Argument and the Problem of Truth in the 21st Century For Writing and Discussion: Role-Playing Arguments Conclusion 2. The Core of an Argument: A Claim with Reason The Classical Structure of Argument Classical Appeals and the Rhetorical Triangle Issue Questions as the Origins of Argument Difference between an Issue Question and an Information Question How to Identify an Issue Question For Writing and Discussion: Information Questions Versus Issue Questions Difference between a Genuine Argument and a Pseudo-Argument For Writing and Discussion: Reasonable Arguments Versus Pseudo-Arguments Frame of an Argument: A Claim Supported by Reasons What Is a Reason? For Writing and Discussion: Using Images to Support an Argument Expressing Reasons in Because Clauses For Writing and Discussion: Developing Claims and Reasons Conclusion Writing Assignment: An Issue Question and Working Thesis Statements 0 3. The Logical Structure of Arguments: Logos An Overview of Logos: What Do We Mean by the “Logical Structure” of an Argument? Formal Logic Versus Real-World Logic The Role of Assumptions The Core of an Argument: The Enthymeme The Power of Audience-Based Reasons For Writing and Discussion: Identifying Underlying Assumptions and Choosing Audience-Based Reasons Adopting a Language for Describing Arguments: The Toulmin System For Writing and Discussion: Developing Enthymemes with the Toulmin Schema Using Toulmin’s Schema to Plan and Test Your Argument Hypothetical Example: Cheerleaders as Athletes First Part of Chandale’s Argument Continuation of Chandale’s Argument Extended Student Example: Girls and Violent Video Games Carmen Tieu (Student Essay), Why Violent Video Games Are Good for Girls The Thesis-Governed “Self-Announcing” Structure of Classical Argument For Writing and Discussion: Reasons, Warrants, and Conditions of Rebuttal Conclusion A Note on the Informal Fallacies Writing Assignment: Plan of an Argument’s Details 4. Using Evidence Effectively Kinds of Evidence The Persuasive Use of Evidence Apply the STAR Criteria to Evidence Establish a Trustworthy Ethos Be Mindful of a Source’s Distance from Original Data Rhetorical Understanding of Evidence Angle of Vision and the Selection and Framing of Evidence For Writing and Discussion: Creating Contrasting Angles of Vision Examining Visual Arguments: Angle of Vision Rhetorical Strategies for Framing Evidence Strategies for Framing Statistical Evidence For Writing and Discussion: Using Strategies to Frame Statistical Evidence Creating a Plan for Gathering Evidence Conclusion Writing Assignment: A Supporting-Reasons Argument 5. Moving Your Audience: Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos Logos, Ethos, and Pathos as Persuasive Appeals: An Overview How to Create an Effective Ethos: The Appeal to Credibility How to Create Pathos: The Appeal to Beliefs and Emotions Use Concrete Language Use Specific Examples and Illustrations Use Narratives Use Words, Metaphors, and Analogies with Appropriate Connotations For Writing and Discussion: Incorporating Appeals to Pathos Kairos: The Timeliness and Fitness of Arguments For Writing and Discussion: Analyzing an Argument from the Perspectives of Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos Using Images to Appeal to Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos For Writing and Discussion: Analyzing Images as Appeals to Pathos Examining Visual Arguments: Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos How Audience-Based Reasons Appeal to Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos For Writing and Discussion: Planning an Audience-Based Argumentative Strategy Conclusion Writing Assignment: Revising a Draft for Ethos, Pathos, and Audience-Based Reasons 6. Responding to Objections and Alternative Views One-Sided, Multisided, and Delayed-Thesis Arguments Determining Your Audience’s Resistance to Your Views Appealing to a Supportive Audience: One-Sided Argument Appealing to a Neutral or Undecided Audience: Classical Argument Summarizing Opposing Views For Writing and Discussion: Distinguishing Fair from Unfair Summaries Refuting Opposing Views Strategies for Rebutting Evidence Conceding to Opposing Views Example of a Student Essay Using Refutation Strategy Trudie Makens (Student Essay), Bringing Dignity to Workers: Make the Minimum Wage a Living Wage For Writing and Discussion: Refutation Strategies Appealing to a Resistant Audience: Delayed-Thesis Argument ALEXANDER CHANCELLOR, Oh, How I Will Miss the Plastic Bag Writing a Delayed-Thesis Argument Conclusion Writing Assignment: A Classical Argument or a Delayed Thesis Argument Reading Lauren Shinozuka (Student Essay), The Dangers of Digital Distractedness II. ENTERING AN ARGUMENTATIVE CONVERSATION 7. Analyzing Arguments Rhetorically Thinking Rhetorically about a Text Reconstructing a Text’s Rhetorical Context Author, Motivating Occasion, and Purpose Audience Genre Angle of Vision Asking Questions That Promote Rhetorical Thinking For Writing and Discussion: Practicing Rhetorical Analysis Conducting a Rhetorical Analysis of a Source Text KATHRYN JEAN LOPEZ, Egg Heads For Writing and Discussion: Identifying Rhetorical Features Our Own Rhetorical Analysis of “Egg Heads” Conclusion Writing Assignment: A Rhetorical Analysis Readings ELLEN GOODMAN, Womb for Rent Critiquing “Womb for Rent” Zachary Stumps (Student Essay), A Rhetorical Analysis Of Ellen Goodman’s “Womb For Rent” 8. Argument as Inquiry: Reading, Summarizing, and Speaking Back Finding Issues to Explore Do Some Initial Brainstorming Be Open to the Issues All Around You Explore Ideas by Freewriting For Writing and Discussion: Responding to Visual Arguments About a Living Wage Explore Ideas by Idea Mapping Explore Ideas by Playing the Believing and Doubting Game For Writing and Discussion: Playing the Believing and Doubting Game Summarizing a Stakeholder’s Argument JAMES SUROWIECKI, The Pay Is Too Damn Low Thinking Steps for Writing a Summary For Writing and Discussion: Does/Says Statements Examples of Summaries Responding to a Stakeholder’s Argument Practicing Believing: Willing Your Own Acceptance of the Writer’s Views Practicing Doubting: Willing Your Own Resistance to the Writer’s Views For Writing and Discussion: Raising Doubts About Surowiecki’s Argument Thinking Dialectically For Writing and Discussion: Practicing Dialectic Thinking with Two Articles MICHAEL SALTSMAN, To Help the Poor, Move Beyond “Minimum” Gestures Three Ways to Foster Dialectic Thinking Conclusion Writing Assignment: An Argument Summary or a Formal Exploratory Essay Reading Trudie Makens (Student Essay), Should Fast-Food Workers Be Paid $15 per Hour? III. EXPANDING OUR UNDERSTANDING OF ARGUMENT 9. Making Visual and Multimodal Arguments Understanding Visual Design Elements in Multimodal Argument Use of Type Use of Space and Layout Use of Color Use of Images and Graphics For Writing and Discussion: Analyzing an Advocacy Ad The Compositional Features of Photographs and Drawings Compositional Features to Examine in Photos and Drawings An Analysis of a Multimedia Video Argument Using Words, Images, and Music For Writing and Discussion: Thinking Rhetorically about Photos The Genres of Multimodal Argument Posters and Fliers Public Affairs Advocacy Advertisements Cartoons For Writing and Discussion: Analyzing Posters Rhetorically For Writing and Discussion: Analyzing Cartoons Websites Advocacy Videos Constructing Your Own Multimodal Arguments Guidelines for Creating the Visual Elements in Posters, Fliers, and Advocacy Ads Guidelines for Creating Video Arguments For Writing and Discussion: Developing Ideas for an Advocacy Ad or Poster Argument Using Information Graphics in Arguments How Tables Contain a Variety of Stories Using a Graph to Tell a Story Incorporating Graphics into Your Argument A Note on How Graphics Frame Data Rhetorically Conclusion Writing Assignment: A Visual Argument Rhetorical Analysis, a Visual Argument, or a Short Argument Using Quantitative Data 10. An Alternative to Argument: Collaborative Rhetoric The Appropriateness and Usefulness of Collaborative Rhetoric The Principles of Collaborative Rhetoric Practicing Nonjudgmental Listening Identifying Values, Emotions, and Identities Seeking Common Ground Promoting Openness to Ongoing Communication and Change For Writing and Discussion: Listening Empathically and Seeking Common Ground Preparing for Collaborative Rhetoric Through Reflective Writing and Discussion Preparing for Collaborative Rhetoric Through Reflective Writing Practicing Collaborative Rhetoric in Discussion For Writing and Discussion: Conducting a Collaborative Rhetoric Discussion Writing an Open Letter as Collaborative Rhetoric Colleen Fontana (Student Essay), An Open Letter to Robert Levy in Response to His Article “They Never Learn” Conclusion Writing Assignment: An Open Letter as Collaborative Rhetoric Reading Monica Allen (Student Essay), An Open Letter to Christopher Eide in Response to His Article “High-Performing Charter Schools Can Close the Opportunity Gap” IV. ARGUMENTS IN DEPTH: TYPES OF CLAIMS 11. An Introduction to the Types of Claims The Types of Claims and Their Typical Patterns of Development For Writing and Discussion: Identifying Types of Claims Using Claim Types to Focus an Argument and Generate Ideas: An Example Writer 1: Ban E-Cigarettes Writer 2: Promote E-Cigarettes as a Preferred Alternative to Real Cigarettes Writer 3: Place No Restrictions on E-Cigarettes Hybrid Arguments: How Claim Types Work Together in Arguments Some Examples of Hybrid Arguments For Writing and Discussion: Exploring Different Claim Types and Audiences An Extended Example of a Hybrid Argument ALEX HUTCHINSON, Your Daily Multivitamin May Be Hurting You 12. Definition and Resemblance Arguments What Is at Stake in an Argument about Definition and Resemblance? Consequences Resulting from Categorical Claims The Rule of Justice: Things in the Same Category Should Be Treated the Same Way For Writing and Discussion: Applying the Rule of Justice Types of Categorical Arguments Simple Categorical Arguments For Writing and Discussion: Supporting and Rebutting Simple Categorical Claims Definition Arguments Resemblance Argument Using Analogy For Writing and Discussion: Developing Analogies Resemblance Arguments Using Precedent For Writing and Discussion: Using Claims of Precedent Examining Visual Arguments: Claim about Category (Definition) The Criteria-Match Structure of Definition Arguments Overview of Criteria-Match Structure Toulmin Framework for a Definition Argument For Writing and Discussion: Identifying Criteria and Match Issues Creating Criteria Using Aristotelian Definition Strategy 1: Research How Others Have Defined the Term Strategy 2: Create Your Own Extended Definition For Writing and Discussion: Developing a Definition Writing Assignment: A Definition Argument Exploring Ideas Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake Organizing a Definition Argument Questioning and Critiquing a Definition Argument Readings Arthur Knopf (Student Essay), Is Milk a Health Food? Alex Mullen (Student Essay), A Pirate But Not a Thief: What Does “Stealing” Mean in a Digital Environment? MARK OPPENHEIMER, How Do We Define Adulthood? 13. Causal Arguments An Overview of Causal Arguments Kinds of Causal Arguments Toulmin Framework for a Causal Argument For Writing and Discussion: Developing Causal Chains Two Methods for Arguing That One Event Causes Another First Method: Explain the Causal Mechanism Directly Second Method: Infer Causal Links Using Inductive Reasoning For Writing and Discussion: Developing Plausible Causal Chains Based on Correlations Examining Visual Arguments: A Causal Claim Key Terms and Inductive Fallacies in Causal Arguments A Glossary of Key Terms Avoiding Common Inductive Fallacies That Can Lead to Wrong Conclusions For Writing and Discussion: Brainstorming Causes and Constraints Writing Assignment: A Causal Argument Exploring Ideas Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake Organizing a Causal Argument Questioning and Critiquing a Causal Argument Readings Jesse Goncalves (Student Essay), What Causes Math Anxiety? KRIS SAKNUSSEMM, Mirror, Mirror on the Wall, Are We Really Here at All? Can We Tell? Carlos Macias (Student Essay), “The Credit Card Company Made Me Do It!”–The Credit Card Industry’s Role in Causing Student Debt 14. Evaluation and Ethical Arguments An Overview of Categorical and Ethical Evaluation Arguments Constructing a Categorical Evaluation Argument Criteria-Match Structure of Categorical Evaluations Developing Your Criteria Making Your Match Argument Examining Visual Arguments: An Evaluation Claim For Writing and Discussion: Developing Criteria and Match Arguments Constructing an Ethical Evaluation Argument Consequences as the Base of Ethics Principles as the Base of Ethics Example Ethical Arguments Examining Capital Punishment For Writing and Discussion: Developing an Ethical Argument Common Problems in Making Evaluation Arguments Writing Assignment: An Evaluation or Ethical Argument Exploring Ideas Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake Organizing an Evaluation Argument Questioning and Critiquing a Categorical Evaluation Argument Critiquing an Ethical Argument Readings Lorena Mendoza-Flores (Student Essay), Silenced and Invisible: Problems of Hispanic Students at Valley High School Hadley Reeder (Student Essay), A Defective and Detrimental Dress Code JUDITH DAAR AND EREZ ALONI, Three Genetic Parents–For One Healthy Baby SAMUEL AQUILA, The “Therapeutic Cloning” of Human Embryos 15. Proposal Arguments 306 The Special Features and Concerns of Proposal Arguments Practical Proposals Versus Policy Proposals Toulmin Framework for a Proposal Argument Special Concerns for Proposal Arguments Developing a Proposal Argument Examining Visual Arguments: A Proposal Claim Convincing Your Readers That a Problem Exists Explaining the Proposed Solution: Showing the Specifics of Your Proposal Offering a Justification: Convincing Your Readers That the Benefits of Your Proposal Outweigh the Costs Using Heuristic Strategies to Develop Supporting Reasons for Your Proposal The Claim Types Strategy The Stock Issues Strategy For Writing and Discussion: Generating Ideas Using the Claim Types Strategy For Writing and Discussion: Brainstorming Ideas for a Proposal Proposal Arguments as Advocacy Posters or Advertisements Writing Assignment: A Proposal Argument Exploring Ideas Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake Organizing a Proposal Argument Designing a One-Page Advocacy Poster or Advertisement Designing PowerPoint Slides or Other Visual Aids for a Speech Questioning and Critiquing a Proposal Argument Readings Megan Johnson (Student Essay), A Practical Proposal Ivan Snook (Student Essay), Flirting with Disaster: An Argument against Integrating Women into the Combat Arms Sandy Wainscott (Student Essay), Why McDonald’s Should Sell Meat and Veggie Pies: A Proposal to End Subsidies for Cheap Meat MARCEL DICKE AND ARNOLD VAN HUIS, The Six-Legged Meat of the Future V. THE RESEARCHED ARGUMENT 16. Finding and Evaluating Sources Formulating a Research Question Instead of a Topic Thinking Rhetorically About Kinds of Sources Identifying Kinds of Sources Relevant to Your Question Approaching Sources Rhetorically For Writing and Discussion: Identifying Types of Sources Finding Sources Conducting Interviews Gathering Source Data from Surveys or Questionnaires Finding Books and Reference Sources Using Licensed Databases to Find Articles in Scholarly Journals, Magazines, and News Sources Finding Cyberspace Sources: Searching the World Wide Web Selecting and Evaluating Your Sources and Taking Purposeful Notes Reading with Rhetorical Awareness Evaluating Sources Criteria for Evaluating a Web Source For Writing and Discussion: Analyzing the Rhetorical Elements of Two Websites Taking Purposeful Notes Conclusion 17. Incorporating Sources into Your Own Argument Using Sources for Your Own Purposes Writer 1: A Causal Argument Showing Alternative Approaches to Reducing Risk of Alcoholism Writer 2: A Proposal Argument Advocating Vegetarianism Writer 3: An Evaluation Argument Looking Skeptically at Vegetarianism For Writing And Discussion: Using a Source for Different Purposes Using Summary, Paraphrase, and Quotation Summarizing Paraphrasing Quoting Punctuating Quotations Correctly Quoting a Complete Sentence Quoting Words and Phrases Modifying a Quotation Omitting Something from a Quoted Passage Quoting Something That Contains a Quotation Using a Block Quotation for a Long Passage Creating Rhetorically Effective Attributive Tags Attributive Tags versus Parenthetical Citations Creating Attributive Tags to Shape Reader Response Avoiding Plagiarism Why Some Kinds of Plagiarism May Occur Unwittingly Strategies for Avoiding Plagiarism For Writing And Discussion: Avoiding Plagiarism Conclusion 18. Citing and Documenting Sources The Correspondence between In-Text Citations and the End-of-Paper List of Cited Works MLA Style In-Text Citations in MLA Style Works Cited List in MLA Style MLA Works Cited Citation Models MLA-Style Research Paper APA Style In-Text Citations in APA Style References List in APA Style APA References Citation Models APA-Style Research Paper Conclusion APPENDIX: INFORMAL FALLACIES The Difference Between Formal and Informal Logic An Overview of Informal Fallacies Fallacies of Pathos Fallacies of Ethos Fallacies of Logos For Writing And Discussion: Persuasive or Fallacious? VI. AN ANTHOLOGY OF ARGUMENTS Choices for a Sustainable World JOSEPH ALDY, “Curbing Climate Change Has a Dollar Value – Here’s How and Why We Measure It” JAMES A. BAKER, “The Conservative Case for a Carbon Tax and Dividends” DAVID ROBERTS, “Putting a Price on Carbon is a Fine Idea. It’s Not the End-All Be-All” JULIAN CRIBB, “Our Human Right Not to Be Poisoned” ALEX HALLATT, “I Stopped Wearing Leather . . . “ BILL MCKIBBEN, “The Question I Get Asked the Most” CHELSEA M. ROCHMAN, “Ecologically Relevant Data Are Policy-Relevant Data” BEN ADLER, “Banning Plastic Bags is Great for the World, Right? Not So Fast” SUN SENTINEL EDITORIAL BOARD, “Plastic Bag Ban: Let’s Not Get Carried Away” For Writing and Discussion: Choices for a Sustainable World Writing Assignment: Rhetorical Analysis Post-Fact, Post-Truth Society? DAVID UBERTI, “The Real History of Fake News” EUGENE KIELY AND LORI ROBERTSON, “How to Spot Fake News” KARSTEN SCHLEY, “Warning!! This Newspaper May Contain Traces of Journalism” JACK SHAFER, “The Cure for Fake News Is Worse Than the Disease; Stop Being Trump’s Twitter Fool” ROBERT P. GEORGE AND CORNEL WEST, “Sign the Statement: Truth-Seeking, Democracy, and Freedom of Thought and Expression” LUCIANO FLORIDI, “Fake News and a 400-Year-Old Problem: We Need to Resolve the “Post-Truth” Crisis” PETER WAYNE MOE, “Teaching Writing in a Post-Truth Era” MARCUS DU SAUTOY, “Why Aren’t People Listening to Scientists?” JEFF HESTER, “The Hermeneutics of Bunk: How a Physicist Gave Postmodernism a Black Eye” TIMOTHY CAULFIELD, “Blinded by Science: Modern-Day Hucksters Are Cashing In on Vulnerable Patients” For Writing and Discussion: Dealing with Misinformation, Fake News, and Misconceptions Writing Assignment: Researched Proposal Speech on Understanding and Evaluating Scientific Claims Public Health DEMOCRAT AND CHRONICLE EDITORIAL BOARD, “Keep Up Fight against Childhood Obesity” SAN DIEGO UNION-TRIBUNE EDITORIAL BOARD, “Fed or Fed Up? Why We Support Easing School Lunch Rules” CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION, “Tips for Parents–Ideas to Help Children Maintain a Healthy Weight” JULIA BELLUZ AND JAVIER ZARRACINA, “We Need to Call American Breakfast What It Often Is: Dessert” SARAH WILSON, “I’ve Heard All the Arguments against a Sugar Tax. I’m Still Calling for One in Australia” HARTFORD COURANT EDITORIAL BOARD, “Soda Tax Is Nanny-State Overreach” SIGNE WILKINSON, “More Jobs Lost to Soda Taxes!” LOS ANGELES TIMES EDITORIAL BOARD, “Are We Subsidizing a Public Health Crisis by Allowing the Poor to Buy Soda with Food Stamps?” For Writing and Discussion: Public Health Writing Assignment: Multimodal Argument: A Storyboard or Cartoon Challenges in Education RACHEL M. COHEN, “Rethinking School Discipline” RICHARD ULLMAN, “Restorative Justice: The Zero-Tolerance-Policy Overcorrection” CASSADY ROSENBLUM, “Take It From a New Orleans Charter School Teacher: Parents Don’t Always Get School Choice Right” PAUL FELL, “Educators Try to Keep Public Education away from School Vouchers and Charter Schools” DOUGLAS N. HARRIS, “Why Managed Competition Is Better Than a Free Market for Schooling” RACHEL LAM, “Separate but Unequal” RAFAEL WALKER, “How Canceling Controversial Speakers Hurts Students” GINA BARRECA, “I’m Not Giving Students ‘Trigger Warnings’ ” ONNI GUST, “I Use Trigger Warnings–But I’m Not Mollycoddling My Students” For Writing and Discussion: Challenges in Education Writing Assignment: A Researched Evaluation Argument on an Educational Policy Self-Driving Cars ROBIN CHASE, “Self-Driving Cars Will Improve Our Cities, If They Don’t Ruin Them” SCOTT SANTENS, “Self-Driving Trucks Are Going to Hit Us Like a Human-Driven Truck” DREW HENDRICKS, “Five Reasons You Should Embrace Self-Driving Cars” THE EDITORIAL BOARD OF THE NEW YORK TIMES, “Would You Buy a Self-Driving Future from These Guys?” For Writing and Discussion: Self-Driving Cars Writing Assignment: A Researched Argument on a Subissue Related to Self-Driving Cars Immigration in the Twenty-First Century MICHELLE YE HEE LEE, “Fact Checker: The White House’s Claim that “Sanctuary” Cities Are Violating the Law” KENT LUNDGREN, “Stop Immigration Processing as Leverage against Sanctuaries?” DARLENE NICGORSKI, “Convicted of the Gospel” LUPE VALDEZ, ED GONZALEZ, AND JAVIER SALAZAR, “Enforcement in Sanctuary Cities Should Be Feds’ Job, Not Local Police” JEFF DANZIGER, “Coming Soon to a House Like Yours” SALIL SHETTY, AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, “Foreword to Tackling the Global Refugee Crisis: From Shirking to Sharing Responsibility” STEVEN P. BUCCI, “We Must Remain Vigilant through Responsible Refugee Policies” RICH STEARNS, “Facing Responsibility: The Face of a Refugee Child” For Writing and Discussion: Immigration in the Twenty-First Century Writing Assignment: White Paper Summarizing the Arguments about a Policy Proposal Argument Classics JONATHAN SWIFT, “A Modest Proposal: For Preventing the Children of Poor People in Ireland, from Being a Burden on Their Parents or Country, and for Making Them Beneficial to the Public” ELIZABETH CADY STANTON, “The Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions Seneca Falls Conference” (1848) MARGARET SANGER, “The Morality of Birth Control” For Writing and Discussion: Argument Classics Writing Assignment: Rhetorical Analysis Credits Index Table of Contents
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